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Pax Roman A Time Of Peace And Learning - 1459 Words

Research paper: Pax Romana Rome’s Golden Age, often called the â€Å"Pax Romana†, was a time of peace and learning after the ongoing wars with neighboring barbarians, and civil wars. During this time of peace, the Romans greatly expanded their commerce and also refine their art. With peace, the romans spent less time focusing on war and more time focusing on the arts. History remembers the legendary Roman legions as the one of the most deadly and successful fighting forces in the ancient world. Even today, stories of their great success and invincibility in the face of their enemies are still known. At the height of their empire, the Romans were able to conquer a vast empire that stretched over three continents and maintain t power for centuries over the Mediterranean Sea. The key to Rome’s military success during the Pax Romana was the advanced military innovations that the Romans incorporated into its great army that included military bureaucracy, advanced batt le tactics and military technology. The Pax Romana was a time of relative peace during the Roman Empire. Although there were small conflicts during The Pax Romana it was generally known as a time of prosperity and expansion for Rome, mainly under the leadership of Emperor Augustus and Tiberius who successfully expanded borders and made peace with neighboring barbarians. Pax Romana is Latin for peaceful Rome. It lasted from 27 BC to 180 AD, from the end of the Republican Civil wars to the death of Marcus Aurelious.Show MoreRelatedAugustus Of The Roman Empire1365 Words   |  6 PagesDictator of the Roman Empire adopted his grandnephew, also known as Octavian in his will. After Cesar was assassinated Augustus wanted nothing more than to â€Å"claim his inheritance and to avenge his slain â€Å"father†(ColeSymes).† This vengeance left constant warfare that came to an end after the victory at Actium. At this point in time Rome was no longer a republic. Augustus ruled for four years as an independent citiz en then accepted his title as â€Å"emperor.† Augustus was the first roman emperor and ledRead MoreWhat Were the Chief Characteristics of the Roman World in the Period C. Ad 100 to C. 450?2148 Words   |  9 Pagesteach us a lot about the Roman and wider European past and the society we are today. Therefore study of the later Roman Empire is essential when dissecting the inner workings and fall of this powerful empire. To learn fully about this time looking at the characteristics which made up this world is essential. The following essay will discuss in detail many of the characteristics of the Roman Empire in the time period 100 AD to 450 AD including the centrality of the emperor in Roman life, the ChristianRead More Augustus Caesar - The First Roman Emperor Essay782 Words   |  4 Pages Augustus Caesar - The First Roman Emperor In ancient history there have been many great leaders who had saved the Roman Empire from destruction and demise. The leaders and heroes of the Roman Empire are countless, but one leader stands out from all the rest. Augustus Caesar’s contributions to Roman history helped make Rome the dominant empire we know of today. Augustus Caesar was without a question the greatest political leader in the history of the Roman Empire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a young adolescentRead MoreAugustan Art and Propaganda Essay1964 Words   |  8 PagesOctavian. From the ashes of his father, Octavian was able to build an Empire unparalleled. Later, the name Augustus was given to him by Senate. Augustus ostensibly maintained the form of the Roman Republic while in actuality creating the Roman Empire. He introduced the administrative reforms that led to the Pax Romana with its flourishing of trade and the arts. Although Augustuss ascension to power could have not been without it bequested by Julius, it was his use of art and propaganda that reinforcedRead MoreThe Downfall Of Julius Caesar962 Words   |  4 Pagesgreat Roman general by the name of Julius Caesar was born in Rome, Italy. Caesar was â€Å"born to a family of particans but his uncle Marius was a famous general† (History.com, 2009). Eventually, Caesar rose up through the ranks and became a great general. Caesar eventually went to war with Pompey and was abl e to drive Pompey out making Caesar believe declare himself the dictator for life. Even though under Caesar’s control daily Roman life improved, his assassination was for the best of the Roman peopleRead MoreEssay on Augustus Caesar859 Words   |  4 PagesAugustus Caesar) was born 23 September, 63 BC. Augustus was the grand-nephew of Julius Caesar and later became his heir after he learned that his grand-uncle had adopted him. Augustus Caesar was with out a doubt the greatest political leader in the Roman Empire. He made Rome what think of it as and what we study today. Octavian’s first public appearance was in 51 BC when he delivered his grandmother’s eulogy. In 48 BC he started his political career when he was elected to pontifical college. InRead MoreHow Did The World Changed Throughout The First Millennium Century?1687 Words   |  7 Pagestraveled by land, west on the silk Road across the Central Asia before turning south to india. His goal was to spread the Buddhist learning and forming India and China closer ties. He traveled through dangerous ways, like Gobi Desert and Tian Shan Mountains that he nearly die of thirst. In India, Xuanzang studied with Buddhist monks and visited sacred buddhist sites. At the time, China was gaining strength under the Tang dynasty. Just two years later King Harsha died Xuanzang returned and the kingdom fellRead MoreClassical Civilizations And Ancient Civilizations1870 Words   |  8 PagesDuring this time period, the Grecian states were well renowned in cultural and political status. Greece excelled in government, philosophy, art, poetry and drama. The Golden Age also marked the creation of democracy in Athens. Theaters promoted famous playwrights, architecture i ncluding the Parthenon art and sculptures was created, and famous philosophers including Plato and Socrates significantly impacted the thought processes of that time. 507 BCE – 31 BCE: Establishment of the Roman Republic TheRead MoreEuh Essay Exam2414 Words   |  10 PagesEUH 1000 Essay Exam 1 1. Trace the development of law from the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi to the Romans. Include in your discussion the Judaic concept of law and hot it differed from Both Babylon and Rome. Throughout history laws have been in place to restore or keep order in society. Some laws are put into place to protect while some laws are made to punish. No matter the purpose, laws are put in place with the expectation they will be followed. The Code of Hammurabi was commissionedRead MoreOral Tradition And The Middle Ages1163 Words   |  5 Pagestribes or communities of the Middle Ages was their unifying influence. Through oral tradition, the tribal communities were brought together to be educated in their history. With the prevailing overthrow of the Roman Empire, the European world was brought into a period known as the Dark Ages. Learning via oral tradition was rather common during the Middle Ages, as the literacy skills to read and write mostly died with the beginning of Germanic tribe rule. Oral tradition also provided people something to

Managing Work Health and Safety

Questions: 1. List five sources of stress that can be attributed to a persons job role.? 2. Describe how you can plan and prioritise your workload as a stress prevention and management strategy. ? 3. Discuss the protections under workplace legislation for stress-related illness.? 4. Identify and describe the services, both within an organisation or external, which can be accessed to support people suffering from stress-related disorders.? 5. Describe how a person suffering the effects of a stress-related disorder can look after themselves as part of a management strategy.? Answers: 1. The sources of stress that can be attributed to a persons job role include the following: High workloads with unrealistic deadlines that tend to make the people feel rushed, overwhelmed and under pressure. Putting insufficient workloads on the individual that tends to make the individual feel that their skills are underused. Lack of control of the individual on his work activities. Asking the individual to perform a job or task for which the individual is inexperienced or lack the required skills. Weak or ineffective management that makes the individual feel that there does exit any sense of direction (Barling, Kelloway and Frone, 2006). Again over management can also lead to stress that creates a feeling among the individual that he is undervalued which in turn affects their self esteem. 2. Planning and prioritising work acts as a contributing factor in management of workload and thus helps in preventing workload stress. In order to plan and prioritise work, it is required to be performed in a phased approach manner. The steps involved in the process are, Prioritising work and make to-do-list. Reviewing work load regularly Setting realistic deadlines for the allocated job Structuring the workload Avoiding multi-tasking as it acts as a interference in the performance Keeping a log of workload Hence, with the help of performing the above mentioned steps of managing workload, it is required to be reviewed and the work on the highest priority of workload it required to be performed in the earliest manner (Icaew, 2012). This would in turn act as a contributing factor in the reduction and management of workload. 3. For stress related illness at workplace, the employees are protected under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (2004) that place certain duties on the employer in order to protect the employees from stress related illness at workplace. The duties include the fact that the employer should not expose the employees to hazards, should provide the related information together with necessary instructions and training, conduct risk assessments, investigate the injuries and hazards that have been reported by the employees previously and also guides the employees to notify the injuries at workplace to the employer. Thus it strives towards facilitating the employees with a healthy and safe workplace and protecting the employees from stress and stress related illness. In addition to the above act, the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 strives towards ensuring the fact that the management and the employer should clearly identify the areas within the workplace that might cause stress, should assess the risks at regular intervals for determining the areas that demand control and also guide the employer towards controlling the risks by eliminating or minimizing the risks where possible and finally reviewing the controls and their effectiveness (Comcare, 2016). 4. There is an organisation known as the National Anxiety Disorders Organisations Network who provide forum for addressing issues which are relevant to the enhancement and development of services catering to anxiety disorder on a national level. There are member organisations that share information about their personal activities and discuss subjects of common interest, concentrate about dissemination of materials and find out ways to work in a more joint manner (Boss et al., 2016). There is an organisation known as beyond blue who work on a national level and work in partnership with schools, health services, universities and media as well as those individuals who are patients of depression and anxiety. Within the Macquarie University there is the Centre for Emotional Health which engages in research including analysing, treating and preventing depression, anxiety and connected mental health issues. In Victoria, there exists the Anxiety Recovery Centre who provides support, recovery and knowledge services to individuals and their families with respect to anxiety issues. 5. When discussing about stress it occurs at different levels. It can be at home or at work. The level of mental stress is especially very high in workplaces. There are certain steps that have to be followed to ensure that stress can be managed. Physical exercise and healthy diet often helps in controlling stress. A person should follow a work schedule and try his best to stick to the instant work schedule (Richardson and Rothstein, 2008). Food habits and irregular sleep is a huge reason for the increased occurrences of stress. Stress if not controlled can lead to severe mental and physical diseases. The workplace needs to be built in such a way which is consonance with the health and safety regulations of the law of the land. There should be regular consultations with doctors and psychologists by the people suffering from so to ensure that their concerns are addressed in the right manner. The person suffering from stress should regularly take break from the stressful situation by op ting for a vacation with family, attending music concerts and movies (Everly et al., 2000). Mundane life often leads to the occurrence of stressful life. Hence proper rest is necessary between stressful regimes of work. References Barling, J., Kelloway, E. and Frone, M. (2006).Handbook of work stress. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. Boss, P., Bryant, C. M., Mancini, J. A. (2016).Family stress management: A contextual approach. Sage Publications. Comcare.gov.au. (2016).Work-related Mental Stress. [online] Available at: https://www.comcare.gov.au/preventing/hazards/psychosocial_hazards/work-related_mental_stress [Accessed 21 Jan. 2017]. Everly, G. S., Flannery, R. B., Mitchell, J. T. (2000). Critical incident stress management (CISM): A review of the literature.Aggression and Violent Behavior,5(1), 23-40. Icaew.com. (2012).10 ways to Prioritise your workload | Business management | Small Business Update | ICAEW. [online] Available at: https://www.icaew.com/en/archive/library/subject-gateways/business-management/strategy-and-planning/small-business-update/10-ways-to-prioritise-your-workload [Accessed 21 Jan. 2017]. Richardson, K. M., Rothstein, H. R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: a meta-analysis.

Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the World

Introduction The recent global financial crisis happened between the years 2007 and 2008 that was a serious threat to the financial markets in the United States and the rest of the world. The previous global financial crisis was during the great depression of the1930’s.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The decrease in consumer’s wealth and decline of the economic activities were attributed to the global financial crisis, wounding up leading businesses and companies in the world. Decrease in the wealth of consumers was estimated in trillions of US dollars. The downturn of the economic activities led to the 2008-2012 global recession and contributed to the European sovereign debt crisis. Some of the causes of financial crisis resulted from government policies having promoted easier access to loans for borrowers and enc ouraged home ownership. In addition, the policies in place caused overvaluation of the mortgage loan assuming that the prices for houses would continue to increase. The indicators of financial crisis in the financial institutions occurred when they lacked enough capital to secure their financial commitments Due to the financial crisis, financial institutions collapsed, the performance of the stock markets declined, and most of the banks were assisted by the government to write off their debts. In finding the solution to the financial crisis, people’s concern was that many who were responsible for the financial problems were the ones who were bailed out. The global financial crisis meltdown affected most people in the world, and no one could escape its effects. The housing sector could not avoid the impacts that came along with the global financial crisis. The main causes that made the effects of the global crisis so severe in the housing sector were caused by the influential people who supported that economic model and did not incorporate the view of the othersAdvertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Impact of the global financial crisis on financial markets across the world The financial crisis became a global crisis though it had first begun in the United States and then spread to Europe. The global financial crisis gave rise to negative effects in the financial markets in different countries, and the emerging markets. The financial markets affected by the financial crisis were majorly influenced by the performance of the financial institutions. The financial crisis has shown the negative side of the financial institutions. It is believed that the financial institutions were the major contributors to the financial crisis. This is because they created risky products; encouraged excessive borrowing among consumers, and engaged in high risk behaviours. These risky behaviours may include giving out large positions in mortgage backed securities. The financial sectors and the emerging markets were affected by the financial crisis in 2008, following distrust between financial market participants. Due to the effects of the financial crisis, it led to the breakdown of the short-term financial transactions and the depreciation in the global securities exchanges. One of the notable events that indicated the beginning of financial crisis was with the announcement by the BNP Paribas, a global banking group located in Paris. BNP Paribas cited a complete evaporation of liquidity; this blocked the withdrawals from three hedge funds. The importance of this event did not directly influence the economy, but it led to the panic by investors and savers as they tried to liquidate assets deposited in highly leveraged financial institutions (Gup 2010, p.24). It was estimated that the large US and European banks lost a lot of money from 2007 to 2009 th rough bad loans and toxic assets. This loss was expected to increase in $ 2.8 trillion from 2007 to 2011. The companies affected by the financial crisis were those involved in mortgage lending and home construction.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the end, they could not obtain financing from the credit markets. These firms were subject to government takeovers. Between 2007 and 2008, 100 mortgage firms went bankrupt and were closed. China was the next leading economic superpower after the decline of financial markets in the United States. Before the financial crisis, from 2004 to 2007, the market had been calm and stable. The inconstancy of the financial markets was below long-term averages, as predicted by the SP 500 and VIX index. The 2008 financial crisis changed the market volatility where the asset classes had a signific ant pull back. The correlation between them and the financial market became extremely volatile. During that financial crisis, the SP 500 lost approximately 56% of its value, and the VIX index lost triple more than the SP 500 did. The poor mostly felt the impact of the global recession. Financial markets in the developing countries were affected mostly because most of the policies set by the banks and financial institutions were pegged on the developed countries. Philippine, as one of the developing countries, was affected by the 2008 global crisis. Due to the downfall of Lehman brothers, the benchmark of the Philippine stock exchange index dropped by 9.3%. This trend has been decreasing up today. Due to the effects of the financial crisis, most of the investors in the Philippines withdrew their investments in the country, paying attention to the counter party risks. Turnover in global foreign exchange markets during the global financial crisis Turnover in the global foreign exchange markets during the global financial crisis was significantly affected. These effects were not as severe as those reflected in the financial markets. Some of the factors that influenced the turnover in the foreign exchange markets were the market participants that included the commercial companies, central banks, hedge funds as speculators, and foreign exchange fixing.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The market participants, who acted as buyers in the foreign exchange, determined the turnover as they tended to seek for the currency to settle their debts in different currencies. From 2007 to 2010, the turnover increased by 20%. Using the triennial survey report, the growth in the global foreign exchange market activity increased in 2010 (Appleton, Plummer International Trade Law Center 2005, p.185). The foreign exchange market activities may include spot transactions, outright forwards, foreign exchange swaps, currency swaps, and currency options. Turnover data collected semi-annually by foreign exchange committees in six financial centres showed that the global financial crisis resulted in a decline in the growth of the global foreign exchange turnover. The committee showed the turnover fell by approximately 25 percent from its peak. This fall of turnover went up to US$2.3 trillion in 2009. The nature of the financial crisis was reflected in the decline in the turnover in the f oreign exchange centres. This fall in turnover in the global foreign exchange was evident in the United States and the UK as it was the biggest fall in all the six financial centres. Decrease in the turnover in Australia from 2008 to 2009 was by 25 percent. High frequency traders increased the turnover in the foreign exchange markets. This was transferred from the equity to the foreign exchange markets. With the growth of electronic trading, boom in the high trading frequency in the foreign exchange market increased rapidly. The turnover in the foreign exchange market, as a result of that increase, curbed the financial crisis. From 2007 to 2010, the spot turnover with other financial institutions increased as compared to that with the dealers. The problem with the high frequency traders was that they had no data confirming their share in the foreign exchange market, even though they had contributed to the growth (Nightingale, Ossolinski Zurawski 2010, par. 13). Factors that influen ce turnover in global foreign exchange markets during the global financial crisis Some of the factors that influenced the turnover in the global foreign exchange markets during the global financial crisis were diverse and did not depend on each other. One factor was the customer’s demand that resulted from investing in different countries and international trade. Turnover may have also been influenced by such factors as changes in the buying and selling behaviour of the participants in the market, and new technology (Nightingale, Ossolinski Zurawski 2010, par. 7). The market participants included the business companies, speculators, market hedgers, the interbank market, central banks/federal and foreign governments. The turnover in the foreign exchange market was determined by the economic and structural factors for the three years (Nightingale, Ossolinski Zurawski 2010, par. 7). The slow growth in the turnover for the global foreign exchange market was due to the effects o f the global financial crisis. Another factor that influenced the global foreign exchange market was the global trade. The global trade and non-financial institutions like exporters and importers influenced spot and forwarded turnover. For successful transactions between the exporter and the importer, one party must exchange the domestic currency with the invoice currency in settlement of debt. Dealers who managed risks created by interdealer markets and customer’s transactions also influenced the turnover of the foreign exchange market (Nightingale, Ossolinski Zurawski 2010, par. 8). Willingness of investors to engage in cross border investment during the global financial crisis was another factor that influenced the turnover on the global foreign exchange market. This was a key driver for the demand for the foreign exchange. The investor’s hedge risks arose from acquiring assets in the foreign currencies. The instruments used by banks were also determinants of the t urnover in the foreign exchange market (Nightingale, Ossolinski Zurawski 2010, par. 8). The instruments included the foreign exchange and the cross currency swaps that facilitated cross currency borrowing and lending. What are your thoughts on the impact of the global financial crisis on the turnover in foreign exchange markets? Global financial crisis had a negative impact on economy. Foreign exchange market could not avoid its effects. In the foreign exchange market, the main participants were the business companies, speculators, market hedgers, interbank market, central banks/federal, and foreign governments. The global financial crisis first affected the financial institutions, such as the banks, insurance firms, and the mortgage firms, and then the foreign exchange market. When the financial institution had not forwarded the loans to the borrowers, the foreign exchange market also lacked the currencies, thus having affected the turnover. The 2007-2008 global financial crisis r elatively late affected the foreign exchange market. At the beginning of 2007, it was evident that fixed income markets were under a lot of stress, and in the mid months, the market neutral equity portfolios suffered substantial losses. The traditional financial risk analysis that captured systematic effects failed. Due to this, many investors lost large amounts of money through the currency market. As a result, the turnover in the foreign exchange market had reduced which strained the foreign exchange market when it came to recover its status to its original turnover. From this, it was evident that the financial markets had different ways of handling the financial crisis as compared to the investors, who determined the turnover of the foreign exchange markets. The government and the policy makers should have come up with strategies that would help the foreign exchange markets avoid the impact of the financial crisis. If the policies were well implemented, the investors’ depo sits and returns would have been secure. Most of the currency investors used the buying strategy known as the carry trade. This strategy involves buying stock in high interest rate currencies and selling the stock in the low interest rate currencies also known as taking a short position. A carry trade investor will bet that the exchange rate offsets will not occur, and the differential interest will be earned. When the financial crisis arises, the interest rates returns decrease, and investors, in return, suffer huge losses, thus there is less turnover in the foreign exchange market. When the financial crisis comes into place in an economy where the investors do not have a security of their invested stock, they tend to suffer huge losses. If there are fluctuations of currency, and the interest rates of different countries change, the investor losses a lot of money and the turnover of the foreign exchange market is significantly affected. The collapse of the Lehman Brothers also grea tly affected the foreign exchange market in the USA. With the collapse of the Lehman Brothers, firms relied on it were affected during the financial crisis. This firm held a lot of stock in the foreign exchange market in the US. When it collapsed, it negatively affected the turnover of the exchange market. This indicated that this company was a main stockholder in the foreign exchange market. The foreign exchange markets should let more firms invest in the stock market and not depend on one company. If the financial crisis arises, the turnover of the foreign exchange market will not be adversely affected, since different companies react differently to the financial crisis. Some firms might be strong enough to withstand it while the others may be dissolved due to lack of funds. Reference List Appleton, A, Plummer, M International Trade Law Centre 2005, The World Trade  Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis, Springer, New York. Gup, B 2010, The Financial and Economic Crises: An International Perspective, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham United Kingdom. Nightingale, S, Ossolinski, C Zurawski, A 2010, Activity in Global Foreign Exchange Markets. Web. This report on Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the World was written and submitted by user Hezekiah Burt to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

early human society essays

early human society essays Between the years of 1500 and 1789, was a period of growing societies, government, culture, and the values of human beings. Many great English philosophers during this time such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Hobbes wrote and collected their ideas that depict the nature of human beings and how they come together to form a society in which governments are instituted. During this time, these philosophers laid down their ideas in Leviathan, Two Treatises on Civil Government, and The Social Contract. The nature of human beings could be argued in many ways. Some may say its our nature to be good. Others may claim that we are born naturally indifferent or wicked. As John Locke puts it, I believe that men are created in a tabula rasa manner. Meaning that human beings are created a blank tablet and its up to society, our environment, and experiences that create and shape our character. We are neither born good or evil, but neutral until someone or something molds our personality, changing and molding until we become what our experiences have made us. Some have grown to be ones who enjoy helping others and strive to create a society in which we are all created equal and live in peace. Yet, there are others who have grown to be power hungry, selfish, greedy, and want nothing more than to be in the top positions, worshiping the almighty dollar. Being how many humans have been molded into jealous, envious, malicious and cruel individuals, affects how others are shaped. As Hobbes mentions in his writing, Leviathan, he states ...some men can represent to others that which is good in the likeness of evil; and evil in the likeness of good; and augment or diminish the apparent greatness of good and evil, making men discontented and troubling their peace at their pleasure (Hobbes 35). Hobbes compares human beings to other sociably creatures such as b...

Ways Of Environmental Protection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Ways Of Environmental Protection - Essay Example The background of the article’s title holds significant meaning derived from Jean Rostand who said that â€Å"The obligation to endure gives us the right to know.† This is exactly where the main argument of the essay lies because Carson is correct in the presumption that people, in general, know very little of what’s inside a bug spray or a pesticide and how it affects our entire way of life as human beings. We are but too oblivious to go beyond the product label to scrutinize how these things affect us. The author is correct in saying that there must be more stringent policies and measures regarding the manufacture, sale, and distribution of these substances. Primarily, these harmful chemicals must not be allocated to industries or people indiscriminately. Next, there must be more investigation regarding how these biocides affect vital sources like the earth, water, animals and especially the health of man. All of these must necessarily be relayed to people who had been kept in the shadows. The ability of the people to grasp the extent of the problem and how it affects them must be factored in because they are the ones who are extensively affected. The current atmosphere of fear of diseases attributed to harmful chemicals best explains why there has been a recent increase in the demand for organic food and materials. There had been studies relating certain diseases like cancer to the harmful chemicals produced industrially. People are shedding out extra dollars just to be able to purchase food that is absolutely safe for consumption and this is correlated with eating only organically produced nourishment. There are little to no known legislation or policies regarding the use of insecticides and this is still yet to be fully addressed.

Forensic Entomology research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Forensic Entomology - Research Paper Example It was not until 1668 that Francesco Redi disproved this by observing how these creatures developed into flies, and much later, in 1894 that Megnin developed a method to link this process with a method for calculating the age of a dead body (Byrd and Castner, p. 41). Throughout the twentieth century scientific methods of analysis have improved greatly, with the result that at the present time forensic entomology is a well-established discipline within forensic science, complete with rigorous protocols and extensive underpinning research which help to ensure that it provides relevant, accurate and reliable evidence for crime investigation and prosecution purposes. Forensic entomology is therefore a dual discipline combining elements of natural science in the methods of collection and analysis of samples, and elements of criminology, in the interpretation and application of results, and in the preservation of evidence which is reliable enough to stand up to scrutiny in the criminal jus tice system. Although these two areas have a different focus, they are closely aligned in crime investigation procedures, requiring collaboration across disciplines according to clear scientific principles. This paper explores the contribution that forensic entomology makes to crime investigation and prosecution by examining three of its major areas of application: 1. Determining the post mortem interval (PMI); 2. Providing human DNA linkages and 3. Providing toxicology information. A number of limitations as well as legal and procedural issues are covered also in section 4. 1.Determining the Post Mortem Interval (PMI) through forensic entomology. 1.1 Species involved. Corpses provide a very specialized ephemeral environment which is colonized by particular communities of arthropods in a predictable manner, with one species following on after another in a process known as â€Å"succession† (Horswell, 2004, p. 347). The main species The first species to arrive, often within mi nutes of death, are blowflies. Blowflies from the Calliphoridae family are generally the first stage invaders, and then after these others follow Sarcophagids which constitute a second stage, often overlapping with the first stage somewhat. After this follow the third stage Muscids and Piophilids (Horswell, 2004, p. 348). 1.2 Types of information obtainable. Scientists are able to obtain good information from a corpse soon after death, by taking photographs, measuring temperature, observing rigor mortis and any wounds, and conducting various other tests on the tissue. With increasing passage of time, however, the tissue degenerates, and it is more difficult to obtain reliable data. Because the life cycle of insects is known, and the effects of temperature and weather can be factored in to the equation, careful collection of insects at the scene can provide useful estimate of the PMI. Empirical work in the laboratory has established standard growth times for many of the most common c arrion feeding species, and this means that the determination of PMI has become the most used application of forensic entomology in modern crime scenes (Nabity et al. 2006, p. 1276). Another useful piece of information that can be obtained from examination of species present in a corpse is the whether or not the body has been moved.